Tom HOLLAND + In the Shadow of the Sword: The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World

The Context: Late Antiquity and the Near East

By the 7th century, the Near East was a crossroads of empires: the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire and the Sassanian Persian Empire were the dominant powers, both exhausted by decades of war (e.g., the Byzantine–Sassanian War of 602–628).
The Arabian Peninsula was a peripheral region, home to tribal societies, merchant cities like Mecca and Medina, and a mix of polytheistic, Jewish, and Christian communities.
The religious landscape was diverse, with Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity (including Nestorian, Monophysite, and other sects), and local Arabian pagan traditions all present.

The Emergence of Islam

Muhammad’s Life (c. 570–632 CE): According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad, a merchant in Mecca, received revelations from the angel Gabriel, which were later compiled into the Quran. His message emphasized monotheism, social justice, and the Day of Judgment.
Hijra (622 CE): Facing persecution in Mecca, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina (the Hijra), marking the start of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, Muhammad established a community (umma) that integrated religious and political authority.
Conquest of Mecca (630 CE): Muhammad returned to Mecca with his followers, converting many of its inhabitants to Islam and destroying the pagan idols in the Kaaba.

The Rapid Expansion of Islam

After Muhammad’s Death (632 CE): The first caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali) led the Ridda Wars (632–633) to consolidate control over Arabia, then expanded into the Byzantine and Sassanian empires.

Byzantine and Persian Weakness: Both empires were weakened by war and internal strife, making them vulnerable to the Arab armies. The Byzantines lost Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and North Africa, while the Sassanians were entirely overrun.

Military and Administrative Factors:

The Arab armies were highly motivated, disciplined, and unified by their new faith.
The conquered populations, especially in Syria and Egypt, often welcomed the Arabs as liberators from Byzantine taxation and religious persecution (e.g., Monophysite Christians in Syria and Egypt resented Byzantine orthodoxy).
The dhimmi system allowed non-Muslims (Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians) to practice their faith under protection in exchange for a tax (jizya), which was often less onerous than Byzantine taxation.

Religious and Cultural Appeal:

Islam’s message of equality and social justice appealed to marginalized groups.
The Quran’s recognition of Jesus, Moses, and other biblical figures made it familiar to Christian and Jewish communities, easing conversion.

Holland’s Perspective

While Holland does not focus on Islam as a primary subject, his work on late antiquity (In the Shadow of the Sword) highlights how the collapse of the ancient world and the rise of monotheistic religions (including Islam) reshaped the Mediterranean and Near Eastern worlds. He emphasizes the transformative power of religious ideas in history, a theme that runs through his analysis of Christianity as well.

Key Takeaways

The rise of Islam was rapid and unexpected, transforming the political and religious landscape of the Near East and North Africa within a century.
Its success was due to a combination of military prowess, political organization, and the appeal of its message in a fractured and diverse region.
The Byzantine and Sassanian empires’ exhaustion created a power vacuum that the Arabs filled.

Tom Holland, in his book In the Shadow of the Sword: The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World, does express skepticism about the traditional narrative of the early Arab conquests and the nature of the Arab world during the 7th-century expansion. His work challenges some of the long-held assumptions about the religious identity and motivations of the early Arab conquerors, as well as the rapidity and uniformity of their conversion to Islam.

Holland’s Doubts and Arguments

1. The Nature of the Early Arab Conquerors

Holland questions whether the early Arab armies were uniformly Muslim in the modern sense. He suggests that the initial conquests may have been driven as much by tribal loyalty, the promise of booty, and political ambition as by religious zeal.
He points out that many of the early Arab warriors were likely nominally Muslim or even still adhering to older Arabian pagan traditions, with their Islamic identity solidifying only later.

2. The Role of Religion in the Conquests

Holland argues that the religious identity of the conquerors was not as clearly defined as later Islamic sources would have us believe. The Quran itself was not yet compiled in its final form, and the theological and legal frameworks of Islam were still evolving.
He highlights that the Byzantine and Persian empires were weakened not just by military defeat, but by internal religious and political divisions (e.g., the Monophysite controversy in Byzantium). The Arab conquerors may have been seen as liberators by some subject populations, regardless of their religious identity.

3. The Gradual Islamization of the Conquered Lands

Holland emphasizes that the Islamization of the Middle East was a gradual process, not an immediate or uniform conversion. Many conquered peoples, especially in urban centers like Damascus or Jerusalem, retained their Christian or Jewish faiths for generations under the dhimmi system.
The Arab identity of the conquerors was initially more about tribal affiliation than religious orthodoxy. The idea of a unified "Muslim" identity, as we understand it today, took time to develop.

4. The Problem of Historical Sources

Holland is skeptical of the later Islamic historical sources, which were written decades or even centuries after the events they describe. These sources often reflect the political and theological concerns of their own time, rather than the realities of the 7th century.
He suggests that the narrative of a purely religious conquest may have been retroactively imposed to legitimize the rule of later Islamic dynasties, such as the Umayyads and Abbasids.

Were the Early Arab Conquerors Muslim?

Holland’s answer is nuanced:

Yes, in a broad sense: The Arab conquerors identified with the new monotheistic message preached by Muhammad and saw themselves as part of a community (umma) distinct from the Byzantine and Persian empires.
But not necessarily in the way we think today: Their understanding of Islam was likely less dogmatic and more fluid, blending elements of Arabian paganism, Judaism, and Christianity. The institutional and theological Islam we recognize today emerged later, as the religion was codified and standardized.

Broader Implications

Holland’s skepticism aligns with a revisionist school of early Islamic history, which includes scholars like Patricia Crone, Michael Cook, and Fred Donner. These historians argue that the traditional story of Islam’s origins and early expansion is more complex and less certain than the classical Islamic narrative suggests.